Abstract
Predictions
Explanations

Abstract:  Atoms are the building blocks of the universe; however they themselves consist of protons, neutrons and electrons. It is these sub-atomic particles though, that are the foundation of matter. Conversely electromagnetic waves are a form of energy and not only give us visible light but everything from radio waves to gamma rays. The electromagnetic force is also one of the four fundamental forces of the universe, the others being gravity, the strong force and the weak force. In this book, we propose a qualitative model that shows how electromagnetic waves can form all the different sub-atomic particles. It then goes on to explain how these fit together to form the nucleus of all the different elements and their isotopes, as well as their electron structures. In building up the structure of the atoms, the model naturally explains why the ratio of neutrons to protons required for stability increases, as the elements get heavier. Additionally we are able to explain the variation in the number of stable isotopes each element has, as well as the variations in the abundance of each element. The model also takes into account and/or explains various other atomic features, for example the uncertainty principle.  Furthermore, from these nuclear structures, we are able to show how the strong and weak forces can be combined into the electromagnetic force.

Once the basic structure of the atom explained, we show how this agrees with and explains various phenomena, which include antimatter, quantum mechanical spin, radioactivity, chemical bonding plus thermal and electrical conduction. So for example the model explains why matter and antimatter would have all the same properties, but be equal and opposite in charges. Also in the radioactivity section the model is able to reproduce the radioactive decay tree for all the elements, showing a consistent structure for the nucleus at each step. Furthermore, it is able to explain why a particular nucleus can have multiple decay paths and why sometimes these may go through a stable isotope (for example potassium-40 decaying to calcium-40 and then to argon-40). Additionally the model proposes an answer as to why the radioactive decay of a single atom is a random process. Furthermore, when investigating superconductivity the model is able to explain why external magnetic fields would affect a superconductor’s critical temperature.

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Predictions:

• All sub-atomic particles are composed of electromagnetic waves.
• All matter consists of a single frequency.
• Neutrons are a complete ring of electromagnetic waves, which on average contain 918 waves.
• Protons are a ring with a missing half wave, and contain on average 917.5 waves.
• Electrons are half an electromagnetic wave.
• The strong force is related to the energy drop, when two waves superimpose.
• Nuclei consist of either 1, 2 or 4 columns of alpha boxes.
• The multiple columns within a nucleus are held together with neutrons.
• All alpha boxes have the same field structure, with the positive poles pointing towards the centre and the north poles pointing towards the centre of the box above or below (depending upon whether you are viewing the top or bottom of the alpha box).
• Columns can contain 1 box or between 3 and 10/11 due to the relevant strengths of the electric and magnetic fields.
• Neighbouring columns should be twisted by 90 degrees to each other, such that protons are not facing protons.
• The neutron bonds should be paired together.
• The model states how a certain number of protons and neutrons can fit together to form an atomic nucleus. From this construction, it is able to predict whether the structure is stable or radioactive, and if so what type of decay will occur.
• Carbon-12 production within stars, happens by adding protons, neutrons and alpha particles to lithium-7 and beryllium-7, rather than going through beryllium-8.
• Electrons form rings above and below the nucleus.
• Chemical reactions occur, due to the lower energy level created when atoms consist of full or empty electron rings.
• That the energy level of an electron shell relates to its distance from the nucleus.
• Electromagnetic waves have a persistence property, which can be understood as additional waves with decreasing amplitude on either side of the electromagnetic waves.
• This persistence property affects the positioning of the electrons, since a lower energy situation can exist when superposition of the persistence waves occur.
• That whether a particle is matter or anti-matter solely depending upon which way round the electromagnetic waves are wrapped or in the case of electrons and positrons, which half wave they consist of.
• Quantum mechanical spin is actually related to the discrete number of orientations a particle can exhibit within a magnetic field.
• That the magnetic moment of a nucleus affects its stability.
• The random nature of radioactivity relates to the random absorptions of electromagnetic waves, the movement of this energy throughout the nucleus and the emission rate of this energy by the protons.
• Certain appendages will be unstable and states the type of decay they will do.
• Thermal energy is an oscillation of the nucleon rings.
• Only the protons within the nucleus are able to emit energy and given sufficient atomic density they will produce a blackbody spectrum.
• A prefect body centred cubic crystal is able to conduct electricity in two opposite directions, simultaneously.
• Nuclei with an even number of protons and neutrons will have a zero magnetic moment.
• Blackbody radiation can be produced independent of an elements emission spectrum.
• A nucleon is only stably attached to a nucleus (containing more than 3 nucleons) if it is attached to two or more other nucleons.

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Explanations:

• Why neutrons are unstable outside the nucleus, but stable inside.
• Why both waves and particles have a duality to them.
• Why quantum mechanical features of particles can only be observed at low temperatures and speeds.
• Why an electron and a positron would create two or more gamma rays.
• Why two gamma rays can form an electron, positron pair.
• Why electromagnetic waves slow down, when passing through different mediums.
• Why the Pauli Exclusion Principle holds for protons, neutrons and electrons.
• Why the neutron would have a magnetic moment and an electric dipole.
• The uncertainly principle and why it would hold.
• Why electrons do not fall into the nucleus.
• Why the strong force only affects neighbouring nucleons.
• Why the strong force acts equally on proton-proton, proton-neutron and neutron-neutron bonds, assuming we ignore the coulomb repulsion between protons.
• Why parahyrogen and orthohydrogen molecules exist and the difference between them.
• Why deuterium (i.e. hydrogen-2) is more reactive than hydrogen.
• Why alpha particles are so dominant in radioactive decays, compared to the emission of other nuclear structures.
• Why a proton and neutron would switch places inside a nuclear structure and how.
• Why the ratio of neutrons to protons required for stability increases as the number of protons increases.
• Why the size (i.e. volume) of the nucleus only increases slightly as the atomic number increases.
• Why hydrogen-2, lithium-6, boron-10 and nitrogen-14 are the only stable isotopes with odd number of protons and neutrons.
• Why a particular isotope has multiple decay paths.
• Why a decay tree can go through a stable isotope.
• Why nucleon pairing is so important.
• Why beryllium-8 is unstable, since it is only isotope, within the first 20 elements, that is a multiple of helium-4 and unstable.
• Why the major production spheres within stars jump from silicon to iron.
• Why the average number of stable isotopes for even elements increases, in jumps.
• Why even elements have more stable isotopes than odd elements.
• Why technetium and promethium are the only two unstable elements, lighter than lead.
• Why all elements heavier than lead, are unstable.
• Why there is a low abundance of lithium, beryllium and boron, within the solar system.
• Why the binding energy for the different elements, initially oscillates before steadily increasing and then decreasing again.
• Why electrons form shells consisting of 2, 6, 10 and 14 electrons.
• Why only certain oxidation states for each element are possible. Plus the model states what the electron arrangement for each of them would be.
• Why Madelung’s rule is sometimes violated.
• Why positrons (i.e. anti-electrons) are more prominent than anti-protons or anti-neutrons.
• Why only the non-paired nucleons affect the magnetic moment and electric dipole of nuclei.
• Why radioactive decay trees occur, plus the model is able to show the structure of the intermediate nuclei.
• Why ionic, covalent and metallic bonding occur.
• Why the noble gases do not react with anything else.
• Why only the light elements can form double and triple bonds.
• Why carbon monoxide dynamically changes between a single, double and triple bond.
• Why the reaction rates of elements change within the element groups.
• Why certain elements will replace others within molecules, e.g. NaCl + K -> KCl + Na.
• How and why nucleons will thermally equilibrate with their neighbours.
• Also how nuclei will thermally equilibrate with other nuclei, both within the same material and the surrounding environment.
• Why metals conduct heat better than most insulators.
• Why diamond is the best heat conductor.
• Why the atomic size can affect the rate of heat conduction.
• Why Bose-Einstein condensates, solids, liquids, gases and plasmas exist.
• Why some materials break down, rather than melt.
• Why electrical conduction occurs within some materials and not in others.
• Why some materials are semi-conductors.
• Why ohm’s law holds for standard conductors.
• Why conductivity is affected by the size of the atom.
• Why superconductivity occurs.
• Also why superconductivity only occurs at low temperatures.
• Why magnetic fields, affect the critical temperature at which a material will become superconducting.
• Why there is a difference between type I and type II superconductors.
• How the CNO I, CNO II and OF cycles work.
• Why the nucleus would have discrete energy levels.
• How these discrete energy levels can stabilise a radioactive isotope.

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